Fourth Paradigm and landscape research

5 Fourth Paradigm and landscape research

The world has changed tremendously through intensive technology data acquisition tools (Gray, 2009

). By nature, landscape research is data intensive, and this makes it a strong stakeholder in the global data revolution. Most of the data for landscape queries come from the field and or through remotely sensed data platforms. Intensive and high-resolution data facilitate landscape research (Dozier, 2011

; Perron and Fagherazzi, 2011 ). Undoubtedly, the new paradigm transforms the way in which landscape researchers search for and/or use data. Prior to this paradigm, scientific research thrived on three paradigms: empiricism, analysis, and simulation (Gray, 2009 ). Like its three predecessors, the Fourth Paradigm relies on the collection, curation, analysis and visualisation of data. Landscape researchers use theories or explanations (first paradigm); statistical, field and laboratory analyses (second paradigm) and computer-based simulation of landscapes (third paradigm). Therefore, there is no cause for alarm when landscape scientists adopt the new paradigm. Based on available records (Table 4), big data appears in some landscape-related disciplines, albeit to a small extent. In the opinion of Lynch (2009 ), the Fourth Paradigm provides an integrating framework that allows the first three paradigms (empiricism, analysis and simulation) to be integrated and to reinforce one another. It is much easier to integrate the Fourth Paradigm with the others in landscape research. Landscape researchers are familiar with the use of datasets and landscape tools of analysis most of which are open access (see Tables 5 and 6 below). A data deluge is certainly one of the best ways to support peer-reviewed research. Tolle et al. (2011 ) opine that the Fourth Paradigm aids transparency and accountability in research production and dissemination.

Table 4: State of Fourth Paradigm Research

Fourth Paradigm	Web of Science	Scopus
No. of publications	04	09
Period	2005 – 2011	2005 – 2011
Subject areas/category	Engineering (1), Science and technology (1), Environmental sciences & ecology; Physical geography (2)	Environmental science (1), Earth and planetary sciences (1), Agricultural and biological sciences (1), Arts and humanities (1), Engineering (5)
Document types	Editorial (1), book review (1), article (2)	Article (2), conference paper (3), conference review (1), short survey (1)
Source: webofknowledge.com (Dec. 20, 2011) and scopus.com (Dec. 20, 2011)

Table 5: Research Tools for Second, Third and Fourth Paradigms

Satellite Images	Landscape research application scale	Landscape analysis tools	Applications to Landscape
GeoEye-1	Deep analysis	GIS packages, QGIS	Analysis, visualisation, mapping, modelling
Worldview-1-2	Deeper analysis	APACK	Landscape metrics computation
Spot 1-5	Semi to detailed analysis	Nature Serve Vista 2.0	Spatial planning decision support
RapidEye	Deep analysis	Climate Wizard	Statistical analysis of past, current and future climate variables
EROS A-B	Deep analysis	inVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs)	Ecosystem services analysis
Quickbird	Detailed analysis	Cellular Automata	Modelling spatial dimensions
IKONOS	Detailed analysis	FRAGSTATS	Landscape fragmentation
Landsat 1-7	Semi detailed analysis	ALARM (Assessing Large Scale Risks for Biodiversity with Tested Methods)	Landscape risk management

Table 6: Databases for Second to Fourth Paradigms

Landscape database	Source	Features	Functions/applications
C5 Landscape database API2.0	Open source	Outdoor recreational land use such as hunting, fishing, performance art	GIS based landscape mapping, navigation, analysis
LANMAP2 Pan-European Landscape Database	Open source	Hierarchical classification of 350 landscape types from intertidal flats, urban agglomerations to water bodies	Mapping database
Therapeutic landscape network	Open source	Healthy and green spaces	Landscape and health research
GRID/GRUMP	Open source / CIESIN / SEDAC / NASA	World gridded population / global urban rural mapping	Biodiversity management
Vitour Landscape Database	Open source	Wine landscape conservation and valorisation in Europe	Landscape policy
What is Out There Database	Open source	Designed heritage landscapes from 50 states of the US	Cataloguing of historic designed landscapes
The Landscape Toolbox	Open source (USDA/Nature Conservancy)	Abstracts of methods, terms, and tools on rangeland management	Landscape research tools
Cultbase	Open source / European Commission 2002 – 2005	European cultural landscapes and ecosystems	Data for researchers, students and public users
Atlas	Open Source / UNISCAPE, 2005	Landscape higher education in Europe	Interactive website for landscape education, training and assessment
209 Database Management System	Open source / National Centre for Landscape Fire Analysis	Landscape fire incidences	Wild fire incident management
European Digital Archive on Soil Maps of the World	Open source / EC Directorate Generate Joint Research Centre	Land use and soils	Land use, soils
Global Spatial Database of Agricultural Land-use Statistics	Open source/FAO	Agricultural land uses	Land use and land cover
Open Landscapes	Open access / ZALF	Landscape science	Primary data, metadata, methods, wiki
TERRASTAT database	Open source / FAO	Land resource potentials and constraints potentials	Statistical data on agro allied land uses
Earth System Science Data	Open source / Copernicus Publications	Earth system science data	Datasets
PANGAEA	Open access / Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI),	Georeferenced data from earth system research	Earth system research data
Geo When Database	Open source / University of California at Berkeley	Geologic landscapes based on timescales	Landscape age specifications
USDA/ERS Major Land Uses	Open access / USDA	Major land uses (public/private in the US) based on agricultural census	Land uses from 1945 to 2007

With multiple sources of landscape data, researchers are given a new opportunity to observe landscapes simultaneously and squarely (Lehning et al., 2009 ). Similarly, Hunt et al. (2009 ) add that for the benefit of landscape and ecological research, the Fourth Paradigm synthesises ground data, remote sensing, internet connectivity and commodity computing, and the navigational ability of the data cyber-infrastructure. The capacity of this data-driven approach is particularly enlightening for complex ecological systems (Kelling et al., 2009 ). It is worth noting that even pioneer Fourth Paradigm literature (e.g., Hey, 2010 ) sees the potentials of physical sciences such as biology, astronomy, particle physics, environmental science, oceanography, as well as humanities and social sciences. Most of these disciplines are directly or indirectly related to landscape science and research interests.

The new paradigm is welcomed by leading international science hubs. The National Science Foundation supports it through its DataONE and Data Conservancy projects (Lagoze and Patzke, 2011 ). Institutional repositories also facilitate data sharing, scrutiny, collaboration and the discovery of older data sets (Nelson, 2009 ). The author maintains that what restricts the smooth use of big data projects across the world are the doubts concerning data precision, storage formats, suspicion by scientists and cloudy legal infrastructures. Apart from these, the worst threat is the external threat from intrusion attempts, hacking and cybercrimes (Perkel, 2010 ). Some of the challenges associated with the Fourth Paradigm extend to environmental data. Some data owners consider whether data should be used to measure indicators or to solve environmental crises (Goldston, 2008 ). In other words, it is feared that data could be used against the interests of its owners. For instance, industries could fear to release data on their pollutants.

	Abstract
1	Introduction
2	Defining the Anthropocene
3	Urbanisation and globalisation as the drivers of Anthropocene
4	State of the research: Landscape and the Anthropocene
5	Fourth Paradigm and landscape research
6	Discussion
7	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
	Figures
	Tables